Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi
Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi
Saladin was born in Tikrit in present-day Iraq. His personal name was “Yusuf”; “Salah ad-Din” is a laqab, an honorific title, meaning “righteousness of the faith.” His family was most likely of Kurdish descent,
and came from the village of Ajdanakanin near the city of Dvin in central Armenia.
Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi Rawadiya tribe from which he came had by then been partially assimilated into the Arabic-speaking world.
In Saladin’s time, no scholar had more influence than Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani,
and Saladin was greatly influenced and helped by him and his disciples.
In 1132 the defeated army of Zengi, atabeg of Mosul, found
their refuge blocked by the Tigris River opposite the fortress of Tikrit, where Saladin’s father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, was the guard.
Ayyub provided ferries for the army and gave them shelter in Tikrit. Mujahid al-Din Bihruz,
a former Greek slave who was appointed as the military governor of Northern Mesopotamia for his service to the SeLjuks,
rebuked Ayyub for giving refuge to Zengi and Azzub was banished from Tikrit in 1137 after his brother
Asad al-Din Shirkuh had murdered a friend of Bihruz. According to Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad,
Saladin was born on the same night his family left Tikrit.
In 1139 Ayyub and his family moved to Mosul, where Imad ad-Din Zengi acknowledged his guilt and appointed Ayyub
as commander of his fortress at Baalbek. After Zengi’s death in 1146, his son, Nur ad-Din, became the regent of Aleppo and the leader of the Zengids.
Saladin, who now lived in Damascus, was said to have a special fondness for the city,
but information about his early childhood is scarce. About education, Saladin wrote: “Children are brought up as their parents were brought up”.
According to his biographers, Anne-Marie Eddéen al-Wahrani, Saladin was able to answer questions about Euclid, the Almagest, arithmetic and law, but this was an academic ideal.
It was his knowledge of the Qur’an and the “sciences of religion” that linked him with his contemporaries. Various sources claim that during his studies he was more interested in religious studies than in the military.
Another factor that may have influenced his interest in religion was that Jerusalem was captured by the Christians during the First Crusade. In addition to Islam, Saladin had knowledge of the genealogies, biographies and histories of the Arabs,
as well as the bloodlines of Arabian horses. More importantly, he knew Abu Tammam’s Hamasah by heart. He spoke Kurdish and Arabic.
Salah ad-Din or Saladin was a Sunni Muslim Kurd. He became the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. Saladin led the Muslim military campaign against the Crusader states in the Levant.
At the height of his power, his sultanate spanned Egypt, Syria, the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), the Hejaz (western Arabia), Yemen, parts of western North Africa, and Nubia.
He was originally sent to Fatimid Egypt in 1164 along with his uncle Shirkuh, a general of the Zengid army, on behalf of their lord Nur ad-Din to help restore Shawar as vizier to the teenage Fatimid caliph al-Adid.
A power struggle ensued between Shirkuh and Shawar after the latter was restored.
Saladin, meanwhile, rose into the ranks of the Fatimid government because of his military successes against Crusader attacks on his territory and his personal closeness to al-Adid.
After Shawar was assassinated and Shirkuh died in 1169, al-Adid appointed Saladin vizier,
a rare appointment of a Sunni Muslim to such an important position in the Shia Caliphate.
During his tenure as vizier, Saladin began to undermine the Fatimid establishment and, after al-Adid’s death in 1171, he abolished the Fatimid Caliphate and realigned the country’s allegiance with the Sunni,
Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate realigned.
In the following years, he led raids against the Crusaders in Palestine, ordered the successful conquest of Yemen, and repelled pro-Fatimid uprisings in Upper Egypt.
Not long after Nur ad-Din’s death in 1174, Saladin launched his conquest of Syria and peacefully entered Damascus at the request of the governor.
By mid-1175, Saladin had conquered Hama and Homs, inviting the hostility of other Zengid lords, the official rulers of the various regions of Syria.
Shortly afterwards he defeated the Zengid army in the Battle of the Horns of Hama of 1175 and was afterwards proclaimed the “Sultan of Egypt and Syria” by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustadi.
Saladin made further conquests in northern Syria and the Jazira, escaping two Assassin attempts on his life, before returning to Egypt in 1177 to deal with the problems there.
By 1182, Saladin had completed the conquest of Muslim Syria after taking Aleppo, but ultimately failed to take over the Zengid stronghold of Mosul.
Commanded by Saladin, the Ayyubid army defeated the Crusaders at the decisive Battle of Hattin in 1187, and then captured control of Palestine – including the city of Jerusalem – from the Crusaders,
who had conquered the area 88 years earlier. Although the Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem survived until the end of the 13th century, the defeat at Hattin marked a turning point in the conflict with the Muslim powers in the region.
Shirkuh was in a power struggle over Egypt with Shawar and Amalric I of Jerusalem, in which Shawar asked Amalric for help. In 1169, Shawar was reportedly murdered by Saladin, and Shirkuh died later that year.
After his death, a number of candidates were considered for the role of al-Adid’s vizier, most of whom were ethnic Kurds. Their ethnic solidarity took shape in the Ayyubid family’s actions in their political career.
Saladin and his close associates were wary of Turkish influence.
On one occasion, Isa al-Hakkari, a Kurdish lieutenant of Saladin, urged a candidate for the viziership,
Emir Qutb al-Din al-Hadhbani, urged to step aside, stating that “both he and Saladin are Kurds and that
power should not pass into the hands of the Turks.” Nur ad-Din chose a successor for Shirkuh,
but al-Adid appointed Saladin to replace Shawar as vizier.
The reasoning behind the Shia caliph al-Adid’s choice of Saladin, a Sunni, varies. Ibn al-Athir claims that the Caliph chose him after his advisors told him that “there is none weaker or younger” than Saladin,
and “none of the emirs [commandanten] obeyed him or served him”. However, according to this version, after some negotiation he was eventually accepted by the majority of the emirs.
Al-Adid’s advisors were also suspected of promoting Saladin in an attempt to split the Syria-based Zengids. Al-Wahrani wrote that Saladin was selected because of his family’s reputation in their “generosity and military prowess”.
Imad ad-Din wrote that after the short period of mourning for Shirkuh, during which “opinions differed”, the Zengid emirs chose Saladin and forced the caliph to “invest him as vizier”. Although positions were complicated by rival Muslim leaders,
most of the Syrian commanders supported Saladin because of his role in the Egyptian expedition, in which he acquired a record of military qualifications.
Saladin, who was inaugurated as vizier on March 26, converted “from drinking wine and turned from frivolity to take on the clothing of religion,” according to Arab sources of the time.
Having gained more power and independence in his career than ever before, he still faced the question of ultimate loyalty between al-Adid and Nur ad-Din.
Later in the year, a group of Egyptian soldiers and emirs attempted to assassinate Saladin, but since he already knew of their intentions thanks to his intelligence chief Ali ibn Safyan, he had identified the main conspirator,
Naji, Mu’tamid al-Khilafa – the civilian controller of the Fatimid Palace – arrested and killed.
The next day, 50,000 black African soldiers from the Fatimid army regiments opposed to Saladin’s rule, along with a number of Egyptian emirs and commoners, revolted.
By August 23, Saladin had decisively suppressed the rebellion and never again had to face a military challenge from Cairo.
Towards the end of 1169, Saladin, with reinforcements from Nur ad-Din, defeated a huge Byzantine crusader force near Damietta. Then, in the spring of 1170, Nur ad-Din sent Saladin’s father to Egypt in accordance with Saladin’s request,
as well as encouragement from the Baghdad-based Abbasid caliph, al-Mustanjid, who attempted to pressure Saladin to depose his rival caliph. al-Adid. Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi himself had strengthened his hold on Egypt and expanded his support base there.
He began to grant his relatives high positions in the region; he ordered the construction of a college for the Maliki branch of Sunni Islam in the city, as well as one for the Shafi’i denomination to which he belonged in al-Fustat.
After settling in Egypt, Saladin launched a campaign against the Crusaders and besieged Darum in 1170. Amalric withdrew his Templar garrison from Gaza to assist him in the defense of Darum,
but Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi evaded their forces and captured Gaza in 1187. In 1191, Saladin destroyed the Gaza fortifications built by King Baldwin III for the Templars. It is unclear exactly when this happened,
but in the same year he attacked and captured the Crusader castle of Eilat, built on an island off the Gulf of Aqaba. It posed no threat to the passage of the Muslim navy, but could harass smaller groups of Muslim ships and Saladin decided to remove it from his path.
According to Imad ad-Din, Nur ad-Din wrote to Saladin in June 1171, telling him to restore the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt, which Saladin coordinated two months later after additional encouragement from Najm ad-Din al-Khabusani, the Shafi’i faqih, who fiercely opposed Shia rule in the country.
Several Egyptian emirs were thus killed, but al-Adid was told that they were killed for rebelling against him. He then fell ill or was poisoned according to one account. While he was ill, he asked Saladin to visit him to ask him to take care of his young children,
but Saladin refused, fearing betrayal against the Abbasids, and it is said that he regretted his action after realizing what al-Adid had wanted. He died on September 13, and five days later the Abbasid khutba was pronounced in Cairo and al-Fustat, declaring al-Mustadi caliph.
On September 25, Saladin left Cairo to take part in a joint attack on Kerak and Montréal, the desert castles of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with Nur ad-Din attacking from Syria. Before arriving in Montreal,
However, Saladin withdrew to Cairo when he received reports that during his absence the Crusader leaders had increased their support for the traitors in Egypt in order to attack Saladin from within and reduce his power,
especially the Fatimid who had begun plans to restore their past glory. This caused Nur ad-Din to continue alone.
In the summer of 1173, a Nubian army together with a contingent of Armenian refugees was reported on the Egyptian border,
ready for a siege of Aswan. The emir of the city had requested Saladin’s help and received reinforcements led by Turan-Shah, Saladin’s brother. Consequently the Nubians left;
but returned in 1173 and were again expelled. This time, Egyptian forces advanced from Aswan and captured the Nubian city of Ibrim. Saladin sent a gift to Nur ad-Din, who had been his friend and teacher, 60,000 dinars,
“beautiful crafted goods”, some jewelry and an elephant.
While transporting these goods to Damascus, Saladin took the opportunity to ravage the Crusader landscape. He did not attack the desert castles,
but attempted to expel the Muslim Bedouins living in the crusaders’ territory with the aim of depriving the Franks of their guides.
On July 31, 1173, Saladin’s father Ayyub was injured in a horse riding accident, which ultimately resulted in his death on August 9, 1173. In 1174, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer Yemen in order to assign it and its port Aden to the territories of the Ayyubid dynasty.
After the death of Nur ad-Din, Saladin was faced with a difficult decision;
he could move his army from Egypt against the Crusaders or wait until he
was invited by as-Salih in Syria to come to his aid and start a war from there.
He could also take it upon himself to annex Syria before it could possibly fall into the hands of a rival,
but he feared that an attack on a land that used to belong to his master – forbidden in the Islamic
principles he believed in – would portray him as a hypocrite,
making him unfit to lead the war against the Crusaders. Saladin saw that he,
to acquire Syria, or needed an invitation from as-Salih,
or had to warn him that possible anarchy could pose danger to the crusaders.
After leaving the an-Nusayriyah Mountains, Saladin returned to Damascus and allowed his Syrian soldiers to return home. He left the command of Syria to Turan Shah,
and, with only his personal followers, set out for Egypt, reaching Cairo on September 22.
After being absent for about two years,
he had a lot to organize and supervise in Egypt, namely strengthening and rebuilding Cairo. The city walls were repaired and their extensions were constructed,
while construction of the Cairo Citadel was begun. The 85 m deep Bir Yusuf (“Joseph’s Well”) was built on the orders of Saladin.
The most important public work he commissioned outside Cairo was the great bridge at Giza,
which was intended as a defense against a possible Moorish invasion.
Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi remained in Cairo and oversaw improvements, building colleges such as the Madrasa of the Sword Makers and ordering the country’s internal administration. In November 1177 he began a raid on Palestine;
the Crusaders had recently invaded the territory of Damascus,
so Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi saw the truce as no longer worth keeping.
The Christians sent a large part of their army to besiege the fortress of Harim north of Aleppo,
so that southern Palestine had few defenders.
Saladin considered the situation ripe and marched on Ascalon, which he called the “Bride of Syria”.
William of Tire noted that the Ayyubid army consisted of 26,000 soldiers, of which 8,000 were elite troops and 18,000 were black soldiers from Sudan.
This army plundered the countryside, plundered Ramla and Lod, and spread to the gates of Jerusalem.
Saladin had conquered almost every Crusader city.
Saladin chose to take Jerusalem without bloodshed and offered generous terms, but those inside refused to leave their holy city and swore it in battle
to destroy it to the death rather than see it handed over peacefully. Jerusalem capitulated to its troops on Friday, October 2, 1187,
after a siege. When the siege had begun, Saladin was unwilling to promise quarters to the Frankish inhabitants of Jerusalem. Balian of Ibelin threatened every Muslim hostage, estimated at 5,000,
to kill and destroy the Islamic shrines of the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque if such quarters were not provided.
Saladin consulted his council and the terms were accepted.
The agreement was read through the streets of Jerusalem,
so that everyone would be able to provide for themselves within forty days
and Saladin could pay the agreed tribute for his freedom.
An unusually low ransom had to be paid for every Frank in the city, whether male,
woman or child, but Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi, against the wishes of his treasurers, stood
many families that Chard retook Jaffa and restored the fortifications,
he and Saladin again discussed the terms.
Finally, Richard agreed to demolish the fortifications of Ascalon,
while Saladin agreed to recognize the Crusaders’ control of the Palestinian coast from Tire to Jaffa.
The Christians would be allowed to travel to Jerusalem as unarmed pilgrims and Saladin’s kingdom would be at peace with the Crusader states for the next three years.
Saladin died of fever on March 4, 1193 in Damascus,
not long after King Richard’s departure. In Saladin’s possession at the time of his death were one piece of gold and forty pieces of silver.
He had given away his great wealth to his poor subjects,
so that there was nothing left to pay for his funeral.
He was buried in a mausoleum in the garden outside the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus,
Syria. Originally the tomb was part of a complex that also included a school,
Madrassah al-Aziziah, of which little remains except a few columns and an internal arch.
Seven centuries later, Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany donated a new marble sarcophagus to the mausoleum.
However, the original sarcophagus was not replaced; instead it has the mausoleum,
which is open to visitors, now two sarcophagi:
the marble sarcophaguses on the side and the original wooden sarcophagus covering Saladin’s tomb.
Citadel of Salah el Din Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi
The Salah el Din Citadel, built on Mokattam Hill near downtown Cairo,
was once famous for its fresh breeze and great views of the city.
It is now a preserved historical site, with mosques and museums.
In 1976 it was declared by UNESCO as part of the World Heritage Site ”Historic Cairo Islamic Cairo”
which was the new center of the Islamic world, which reached its golden age in the 14th century.
The citadel was built between 1176 and 1183 AD. B.C.
fortified by the Kurdish Ayyubid ruler Salah el-Dinn to protect it from the Crusaders.
Just a few years after defeating the Fatimid Caliphate, Salah el-Dinn wanted to build a wall that would encircle both Cairo and Fustat.
Salah el Din is reported to have said:
“With a wall I will make the two cities of Cairo and Fustat into a unique whole,
so that one army can defend them both, and I believe it is good to surround them with a single wall.
The citadel would be the centerpiece of the wall.
Built on a promontory beneath the hills of Muqattam,
an environment that made it difficult to attack,
the effectiveness of the citadel’s location is further demonstrated by the fact that
it remained the heart of the Egyptian government until the 19th century.
The citadel ceased to serve as a seat of government when Egypt’s ruler, Khedive Ismail, moved to his newly built Abdeen Palace in the 1860s.
While the Citadel was completed in 1183-1184, the wall that Salah el Din envisioned was still under construction in 1238 and was completed by his successors after his death.
To supply water to the Citadel, Saladin built the 85 meters deep Well of Joseph,
Salah el Din’s so-called birth name, Yūsif,
is the Arabic equivalent of Joseph, which can still be seen today.
This pit is also known as the pit of the spiral because
the entrance consisted of 300 steps that wound around the inside of the pit.
Once the water from the spring was brought to the surface,
it traveled to the citadel over a series of aqueducts.
During the rule of al-Nasir Muhammad,
Joseph’s Well did not produce enough water for the numerous animals and people living in the citadel at the time.
To increase the water volume,
Nasir built a well system consisting of a number of water wheels on the Nile,
the water from which was then transported to the wall
and then to the citadel via the aqueducts that Saladin had already built.
The improvements to the citadel’s water supply were not Nasir’s only additions to the citadel,
which was subject to a number of different additions during the Mamluk period.
Nasir’s most notable contribution was the Mosque of Nasir.
In 1318, Nasir rebuilt the Ayyubid structure and turned it into a mosque in his name.
The structure underwent further additions in 1335. Other contributions to the citadel during Nasir’s reign include the southern enclosure,
the northern enclosure was completed by Salah el Din and the residential area, which included space for the harem and the courtyard.
Before Nasir’s work on the citadel, the Baibars built the Hall of Justice and the House of Gold.
Mausoleum of Salah ad-Din al Ayyubi
Saladin’s Mausoleum contains the resting place and tomb of the medieval Muslim Ayyubid Sultan Saladin.
is adjacent to the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. It was built in 1196, three years after Saladin’s death.
Originally the tomb complex included the burial of Salah al-Din
and Madrassah al-Aziziah of which little remains except a few columns and
an internal arch next to Saladin’s renovated tomb.
The mausoleum currently houses two sarcophagi: one made of wood,
said to be the remains of Saladin, and one made of marble,
was built in the late nineteenth century as a tribute to Saladin by the Ottoman
Sultan Abdulhamid II and was later restored by German Emperor Wilhelm II.
Along with a marble sarcophagus, a gold ornate gilt bronze one was also added
wreath placed on the marble sarcophagus, which was later removed by Faisal I or Lawrence of Arabia,
who later deposited it in the Imperial War Museum.
